Sunday 24 May 2015

Use of pheromone technology- some advice:Pheromoneresorces


Use of pheromone technology- some advice

Pheromone has been in use in India over 25 years as a monitoring tool under All India Coordinating programme for some of the crops likes cotton, groundnut and pigeon pea.  The monitoring technology is well knitted in about dozen centers in these crops.  The monitoring helps in developing forewarning systems and plan management strategies.  Unfortunately, as such efforts have not been made even at research station, the farmers are not convinced about practical utility of pheromone technology.  Some farmers use pheromone traps especially in cotton and pigeon pea eco system, as a mass-trapping tool. Surprisingly, in a recent study at the NRCG; a maximum of 1470 males/day/trap in case of Spodoptera litura was recorded showing its potentiality for mass trapping.
Even after its introduction about 25 years ago, pheromone technology in Indian Agriculture is still in its infancy. This may be attributed to defects in manufacture of the lures and traps, difficulties in installation of traps at farmers level and insect related issues.  An analysis of these issues has been made and suggestions are given to overcome the same. Then only there be actual fillip to the novel, eco-friendly pheromone technology in Indian agriculture.  

  1. Defects in manufacture
v  Poor quality rubber band which is tied around the neck of the trap, can’t stand for a month time in the field condition allowing plastic sleeve to fall apart
v  Poor quality rubber band tied to bottom of the sleeve, which  escape of  trapped insects
v  The improper fixed trap tilting on one side allowing visiting insects to escape
v  Most of the available trap in the market do not have handle, so that it can be tied with single stick, warranting two pieces of stick tied to a  “t” shaped two pieces bamboo sticks
v  Poor quality dispensers (lures or delivery system) allowing quick decimation of the pheromone lasting for a week or two
v  Optimization of the gap between the lure and the mouth (clearance space), to avoid of the trapped insect
v  Improper pheromone impregnation in the lure   
v  The traps should be designed to either by using talc powder inside or tapering towards the end so that the trapped males cannot escape
v   Poor quality plastic sleeve which if run for one month becoming brittle and tear off allowing escape of the trapped males
v  Different species requires a definite type of trap
For example: Pyrallids (eg.,sugarcane borer like Early shoot borer, inter-node borer etc) is trapped in water trap only (David et al., 1985; Dr.Mukunthan and Dr. Easwaramoorthi, 2002, Sugarcnae Breeding Institute, Coimbatore- personnal communication).
Noctuids (eg., gram pod borer, tobacco caterpillar ) are efficiently trapped in sleeve trap, while Gelechidae ( groundnut leaf miner, cottom pink bollworm) are trapped in  sticky trap (Nandagopal and Soni,1993).


  1. Installation of the trap and fixing of lure related issues
v  The fixing of the lures in traps are to be straight, not in  tilting position
v  The bottom of the sleeve are to be  tied with the stick
v  Very thin or damaged bamboo sticks  can not sustain the mass of trap leading to tilting of trap and thus escape of the insects attracted.
v  Farmers can not afford to store the lures in the deep fridge and lure stored openly last for a few days only, hence, community based approach wherein the  village panchayat can arrange facilities for storing the lures

3.        Insects related issues:
3.1 Pheromone specificity
Usually it is said that pheromones are speices specific, but actually it is not so for all the species. There are many components which share other insects

v  (Z)-11-Hexadecenyl acetate (Konyukhov et al.(1983) and  Nesbitt et al.(1979,1980)-Helicoverpa armigera )      

287 other species use this chemical for communication (El-Sayed,A.M.2015. ThePherobase: Database of pheromones and semiochemicals .http: //www. Pherobase)

v  Cis-8-Dodecenyl acetate attract 40 insect species (Kydonieus and Beroza, 1982)
v  Is amyl Acetate- Shares two order 1) Hymenoptera—Aphis mellifera
     2) Lepidoptera—Manduca sexta
v  Cis-14-methyle.8.hexadecenal- is shared by  many Trogoderma species
v  Cis-9, trans-12-Tetra Decadienyl acetate- Shares two different genus
1) Pyralidae—Plodia interpunctella
2) Noctuidae--Spodoptera litura
The sub-species of the main species of the sugarcane inter-node borer  shares the same pheromone. The species  Chilo sacchariphagus  is a insect of West Indies, Trinidad and Cuba etc, while the sub-species Chilo sacchariphagus indicus  is occurring in India (David et al., 1981;David et al., 1985; Brinda F. Nesbitt et all., 1986).
The pheromone components for both the species and the sub-species are  having the same two components
                        1. (Z)-13-Octadecanyl acetate 
                        2. (Z)-13-Octadecenol

3.2 Variation in pheromone blend attraction among insect

Variability in attraction for same species across the location

The ratio of blend of pheromone compounds for same species may vary for biotype, The species of Adoxophyes orana and Clepsis spectrans  in the Netherland share the two compound and (Z)-9 and (Z)-11-Tetra decanyle acetate in 9:1 and 1:3 ratio, respectively.  The biotype Ostrinia nubilalis  in Iowa, Z/E-tetradecanyle acetate is used in the ratio of 97:3 (Klun and Bindley, 1970) where as in  New york a ratio of 4:94 is morfe effective (Kochousky et al.,1975) Interestingly in Pennsylvania, both 97:3 and 2:98 ratio blends (Carde,et al., 1975).

Two sympatric species, Helicoverpa armigera and Helicoverpa assulta, use (Z)-11-hexadecenal (Z11–16: Ald) and (Z)-9-hexadecenal (Z9–16: Ald) as essential sex pheromone components but in very different ratios, 97:3 and 7:93 respectively (Wu et al.,2013).\

In India similar observation in relation to groundnut leaf miner Aproaerema modicella has been recorded.

In Tindivaram, Tamil Nadu one component (Z) - 7 - decanyl acetate or a blend of   (Z) - 7,9- decadienyl acetate (1),  (E) - 7 - decanyl acetate (2),  (Z) - 7 - decanyl acetate(3) in the ratio of 10:2:1.4 were equally effective against GLM (Hall et al., 1993). However, at Junagadh either the complete blend of the pheromone or either (Z) - 7 or (E) - 7 - decanyl acetate in combination with  with (Z) - 7,9- decadienyl acetate was only found to be effective. Similar result were also obtained in Hyderabad, A.P. excepting that (E) 9 and (Z) 7,9 combination was not so effective.

3.3 One or two related components of the blends may be attractive to the other species
eg. (our unpublished work).
Helicoverpa armigera pheromone lures attracting the pink boll worm Pectiniphora  and gossypiella
Lure: Helicoverpa armigera
Moth catch:
Components of  Helicoverpa armigera: 1 to 34 males /trap/days
1. (Z) –11-hexadecenyl acetate
2. (Z)-9- hexadecenal
Components of  Pectiniphora gossypiella: 1 to 19 males /trap/days
1. (Z,Z)-7,11-hexadecadienyl acetate
2. (E,Z)-7,11-hexadecadienyl acetate
Suggestions for improvement of the pheromone technology

For scientists:
v  There should be thorough experimentation on the trap designs to be used for various species of insects as they differ in their trapability
v  Proper ratios of the various components of the pheromone for various agro-climatic zone for a particulars species should be examined
v  There should be experimentation on the use of a particular components for more than one species  of the insects so that the multiplicity of the traps in a unit of  multi-cropping system  can be avoided
v  Durability of the traps/ sleeves and delivery system of the pheromones should be evaluated thoroughly before recommendation to large scale manufacturing by the industries
v  There should be development of standard trapping system for each insect encompassing trapability distance, trap density/unit area, minimum load of the pheromone components, placement of the trap, longevity of the lures and traps
v  The correct dispenser system should for each of the insects should be devised
v  Experimentation on the minimum distance between any two traps should be found out to minimise the number of traps to be used per unit area to avoid cost escalation
For Industries:
v  Proper quality of the materials for the manufacturing the traps should be used for using longer period in the field conditions
v  Proper fixing facilities should be provided in the trap itself so that the farmers can use it properly; Inverted ‘L” handle would be more suitable to tie the trap in a single bamboo stick, instead of ‘T’ shaped bamboo stick
v  High purity of the pheromone components should be used for actual blend of the pheromone (above 97%)
v  Proper quantity of the pheromone should be loaded in to the delivery system
v  The  cost factor is very important for the resources  poor farmers, so all the possible ways should be  found out to re3duce the cost of pheromone use
v  Supply of the pheromone traps and lures should be nearest to the farmers reach
v  Instructions with flow pictures for  proper installation of the traps and lures should be supplied along with the pheromone traps

For extension agency:
v  There should be regular training for the extension agencies on the installation and the methods adopted on the monitoring, mass trapping and communication disruption of the insects using the pheromones
v  The extension agency should explain the farmers about the proper instillations of the traps and the actual number of traps /unit area
v  Proper advise to farmers on the timing of use of the pheromone is necessary

For farmers:
v  Fresh lures should be purchased every time and lures should not be kept in room temperature, instead, if there is facilities like refrigerators, lures in a plastic bag should be kept in side the deep fridge
v  Install the actual number of traps to be used per unite area
v  The traps should be installed upright, so that the lure is in correct position and not likely to fall due to wind
v  The tying of the sleeve both at the top and at the bottom should be proper to avoid opening of the sleeve and escape of the trapped  insects
v  Do not allow the trapped insects inside the sleeve for many days as it may facilitate for slow movement and escape of few of the insects
v  At least once in a week the trap should be monitored for insects and if found, they should be killed by crushing inside the sleeve itself or  by opening the bottom of the sleeve and  killing  insects and can be removed from sleeve/trap
v   Use strong sticks so that it can withstand the weight of the moths trapped and the strong winds
v  While moving inside the field, see that any trap is loosened from its position and sleeve is detached, if found it should be rectified
v  If the crop is nearing harvest collect the traps carefully with out damaging  the fittings and the sleeves and store them properly so that the same can be used for other pest where similar trap is recommended 
v  If the neibouring farmers  are also having crops harbouring the same species, should also be encouraged to go for pheromone trapping- community approach

v  Replace the lures at least once in 25 to 30 days.

Tuesday 19 May 2015

Efficient pheromone trap for Leucinodes orbonalis ?:PheromoneResources

Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée, 1854 –pheromone and trap development

The Leucinodes Group as here defined includes eight genera with at least 74 species in the Crambidae: Spilomelinae. Except Sceliodes and Leucinodes itself, all are Neotropical to temperate Nearctic. The Neotropical members correspond to the Udea Group of Munroe (1995) minus Udea Guenée and Lamprosema Hübner (as the latter two feed on different host plants - See more at: http:// idtools. org/id/leps/micro/factsheet.php?name=%3Cem%3ELeucinodes+%3C%2Fem%3EGro#sthash. X1hmxr 6i.dpuf.

Spilomelinae is the largest subfamily in the Pyraloidea, and until the 1980s it was subsumed within Pyraustinae. Spilomelinae was resurrected by Minet (1981) based on several morphological characters. Spilomelinae is comprised of hundreds of genera, including Neoleucinodes and Leucinodes that are major pests of solanaceous crops in the New World and Old World respectively.

Minet,J.1982.Les Pyraloidea et leurs principales divisions systématiques. Bulletin de la Société Entomologique de France 86: 262-280.

Synonyms: Pycnarmon discerptalis
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Superfamily: Pyraloidea
Family: Crambidae
Genus: Leucinodes
Species: Leucinodes orbonalis (Guenée, 1854)
Other species:
Leucinodes impuralis  (Felder and Rogenhofer) Hampson 1895
(CABI)

The eggplant, Solanum melongena popularly called Brinjal is a typical vegetable considered to be the poor man’s vegetable.  Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée, 1854, the eggplant fruit and shoot borer, is a species of moth that was first described from specimens from India and Java (Guenée, 1854). According to current knowledge, it is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia (CABI, 2012a) and sub-Saharan Africa (Walker, 1859; Frempong, 1979). The fruit and shoot borer  is the main cause  of concern for the farmers, as it starts attacking the brinjal plants from early stages by boring into the growing shoot and causes drooping. Larvae of this insect bore inside plant shoots and fruits adversely affecting plant growth, yield and fruit quality, and thus making it unfit for human consumption. The yield reduction could be as high as 70% (Islam and Karim, 1991; Dhandapani et al., 2003).  Farmers tend to spray brinjal crop with increasing numbers, some time which may increase to 140 times per  season (Alam et al.,2003). Further, it is alrming to understand that the survey of pesticide use in Bangladesh indicated that farmers spray up to 180 times with chemical insecticides during a year to protect their eggplant crop against EFSB (SUSVEGAsia, 2007).

The survey conducted by AVRDC—the World Vegetable Center found that the  eggplant fruit and shoot borer (EFSB), Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee is the most destructive pest in South Asia. EFSB larvae bore the shoots and fruits affecting the growth and quality of the fruits. Farmers dependence on synthetic pesticides  to manage  EFSB. The  neonate larvae of EFSB can enter fruits or shoots within only a few hours of hatching, pesticides need to be applied to have sufficient toxic residues on the plant surface to kill the larvae. Despite the attempts which have been made to explore resistant sources as well as to develop resistant varieties against EFSB in the region, no commercial cultivar with appreciable levels of resistance has been developed (Srinivasan,2008). 

Even to day farmers go far spray schedules with out minding whether the pest was present or not (Atwal, 1976; Srivastava and Butani, 1998). This kind of farmers attitude has led to increased dependence on pesticides results adverse effects on, environment, destruction of natural enemies, and development of pesticide resistance in EFSB, apart from higher costs of production. The higher the pesticide use adverse the effect on ecosystem. Therefore, there arose a need for  developing alternative control strategies.

Pheromone of the EFSB:

Eggplant fruit and shoot borer (EFSB), Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée (Lepidoptera: Pyrallidae) is one of the most destructive pests on eggplant in South and Southeast Asia.  The first Scientists Zhu et al. (1987) reported (E)-11-Hexadecenyl acetate (E11-16Ac) with 300-500 µg with a second chemical (E)-11-Hexadecen-1-ol(E11-16OH) from China.  
                                                                                                          
(E)-11-Hexadecenyl acetate – This chemical is also reported to be a part of pheromone chemicals of European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Lassance, and Löfstedt, 2009), tomato fruit borer (Neoleucinodes elegantalis Guenee -Lepidoptera: Crambidae) (Badji et al.,2003; Cabrera et al.,2001); sweet potato leaf folder Brachmia macroscopa (Hirano et al.,1976), Pink sugarcane borer, Sesamia grisescens Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (Whittle et al.,1995),Sesamia calamistis Hampson ( Zagatti,1988) and Like the other chemical, this also found in Pink sugarcane borer Sesamia grisescens (Lepidoptera:Noctuidae) (Whittle et al.,1995),  (Courtesy:El-Sayed AM 2014. The Pherobase: Database of Pheromones and Semiochemicals. <http://www.pherobase.com> © 2003-2014 The Pherobase.)

In Sesamia nonagrioides Lefebvre as one of the components of pheromones (Krokos et al.,2002; Sans et al.,1997; Frerot et al.,1997; Rotundo et al.,1991; Mazomenos, 1989; Rotundo et al.,1985; Sreng et al.,1985). In diamondback moth Plutella xylostella - Plutella maculipennis  (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) (Tamaki  et al.,1977; Koshihara  et al.,1978; Chow  et al.,1979; Ando et al.,1979; Lin et al.,1982; Chisholm et al.,1983; Maa et al.,1984; Zilahi-Balogh et al.,1995; Reddy et al.,2000; Suckling et al.,2002; Yang et al.,2007), cabbage moth Mamestra brassicae Linnaeus  as single chemical for  attraction. In the species Mamestra cappa Hübner as  a component  of pheromone by Sherman (1980).In an another species of insect  Mamestra configurata Walker, this chemical form part of pheromone (Landolt et al., 2003; Byers and Struble,1987; Struble  et al., 1984; Underhill et al., 1977).

In the species Mamestra cappa Hübner as  a single component of  pheromone was reported by  Hisholm et al. (1975). In an another species Mamestra contigua Denis & Schiffermüller   this chemical is one of the two components of the pheromone system (Stan et al.,1986). In the species Mamestra illoba Butler as  a single component of  pheromone by   Ando et al. (1977). Whil, in the species Mamestra oleracea Linnaeus  as  one the  components  of  pheromone  (Lebedeva et al. , 2002; Kovalev   et al. ,1979;  Descoins et al. ,1978; Subchev et al. ,1989). Yet an another  species Mamestra pisi Linnaeus,this pheromone forms as  one the  components  of  pheromone  (Priesner, 1980; Renou, 1991). (Courtesy:El-Sayed AM 2014. The Pherobase: Database of Pheromones and Semiochemicals. <http://www.pherobase.com> © 2003-2014 The Pherobase.)

In the species Mamestra suasa Denis & Schiffermüller  as  one the  components  of  pheromone  (Subchev and Stoilov, 1984;  Subchev ,1987; Frérot  et al.,1988;). In the species Mamestra suasa Denis & Schiffermüller  as  single   component  of  pheromone  (Subchev ,1981; Vrkoc et al.,1981; Szöcs et al.,1983; Tóth et al.,1986). In the species Mamestra thalassina Hufnagel as  one the  components  of  pheromone  (Renou, 1991). and a single  component of the pheromone  (Mottus,1983). In an another species, Mamestra w-latinum Hufnagel (=Lacanobia w-latinum Hufnagel,1766)as single component of pheromone recorded (Subchev,1981; Szöcs et al.,1983) (Courtesy:Pherobase).

Coming to the second component (E)-11-Hexadecen-1-ol(E11-16OH), it is found in the tomato fruit borer  Neoleucinodes elegantalis (Lepidoptera:Crambidae) as one of two components of the pheromone (Badji et al.,2003; Cabrera et al., 2001). Also, this chemical formed a part of the pheromone system  for Eggfruit caterpillar Sceliodes cordalis (Lepidoptera:Crambidae) (Clearwater et al.,1986). Like the other chemical, this also found in Pink sugarcane borer Sesamia grisescens (Lepidoptera:Noctuidae) (Whittle et al.,1995).

In Sesamia cretica Lederer (Avand-Faghih  and Frérot, 2008; Germinara et al.,2007).In Sesamia calamistis Hampson ( Zagatti,1988).In  Sesamia inferens Walker (Nesbitt et al.,1976; Wu  and Cui,1986; Zhu et al.,1987; Nagayama et al.,2006). In Sesamia nonagrioides Lefebvre as one of the components of pheromones (Krokos et al.,2002; Sans et al.,1997; Frerot et al.,1997; Rotundo et al.,1991; Mazomenos, 1989; Rotundo et al.,1985; Sreng et al.,1985). Also this chemical found in Lawn grass cutworm moth  Spodoptera depravata (Lepidoptera:Noctuidae).(Courtesy:El-Sayed AM 2014. The Pherobase: Database of Pheromones and Semiochemicals. <http://www.pherobase.com> © 2003-2014 The Pherobase.) 
  
Later, Attygalle et al. (1988) and Gunawardena et al. (1989) also identified the sex pheromone   of EFSB in Sri Lanka.  They have also identified  some trace quantities of (E)- 11-hexadecen-1-ol (E11-16:OH). However, E11-16:Ac when used alone or in combination with E11-16:OH attracted more  male moths in India and Bangladesh, although E11-16:OH alone showed no attraction at any concentration (AVRDC, 1996; Srinivasan and Babu, 2000). Cork et al. (2001) at the Natural Resources Institute (NRI), UK also identified the presence of E11-16:Ac as a major component and E11-16:OH as a minor component in the pheromone gland extracts of EFSB from India and Taiwan. They also found that E11-16:Ac and E11-16:OH (100:1) attracted significantly more numbers of male moths than E11-16:Ac alone in India

Management of EFSB using pheromones:

Sex pheromone chemicals are increasingly used to control insect pests of vegetables  and fruits. Zhu et al. (1987) identified (E)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (E11-16:Ac) as the major component of the female sex pheromone of EFSB.   Subsequently, Attygalle et al. (1988) confirmed the presence of E11-16:Ac in virgin females along with trace amounts of (E)-11- hexadecen-1-o1 (E11-16:OH). AVRDC conducted field studies in Bangladesh and later in India indicated that high concentrations of E11-16:Ac alone or low concentrations of mixtures of E11-16:Ac and E11-16:OH (10:0.5 or 10:1) attract large numbers of male moths to pheromone-baited traps (AVRDC, 1996; Praveen Kumar and Sundara Babu, 1997; Srinivasan and Sundara Babu, 2000). Bangladesh where polyethylene vial dispensers caught more male moths than either black or white rubber septa, each loaded with the same 100 : 1 blend of E11-16:Ac and E11-16:OH in a 3000 μg loading (Cork et al.,2001).


Delta and wing traps baited with synthetic female sex pheromone of Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée were found to catch and retain ten times more moths than either Spodoptera or uni-trap designs. Trap catch was found to be proportional to the radius of sticky disc traps in the range 5–20 cm radius, discs with a 2.5 cm radius caught no moths. Wing traps placed at crop height caught significantly more moths than traps placed 0.5 m above or below the crop canopy (Cork et al.,2001).


Changing the shape (square and triangular) and number (two and four) of entry holes in the water trap had no significant effect on trap catch. Significantly more male moths were caught in traps treated with water containing powdered detergent than liquid detergent, light gear oil or insecticide. All water traps tested caught significantly higher numbers of moths than sticky delta traps with open sides under farmers' field conditions. Overall, the percentage of healthy fruit and yields in both treatments were comparable at 53.8 and 49.6% and 20 and 19.4 tonnes per ha in the IPM and farmers' practice plots respectively (Cork et al.,2005).
Pheromone traps were operated with the lure combination of 100:1 of E11-16: Ac and E11-16: OH. The trap consisted of a 3-liter capacity, 22-cm tall rectangular or round clear plastic container. A triangular hole is cut in any two opposite sides starting 3 to 4 cm from the bottom. Traps were placed at 0.5 m and 1 m high above the ground in the field. The number of ESFB males in ten trap catches were 1.7 to 4.5 with a mean number of 3.26 ± 0.32, 8.49 ± 0.36, 5.20 ± 0.24 and 14.95 ± 0.34 catch/trap in the Fields 1,2,3 and 4 respectively. When no trap was operated in the eggplant fields the shoot damage, fruit damage and fruit yield were 3.48%, 31.15% and 13.70 kg/100m2 respectively in the non-IPM blocks. On the otherhand they were 1.56%, 10.66% and 27.54 kg/100m2 in the IPM blocks respectively (Mazumder and  Khalequzzaman, 2010).  



AVRDC is the pioneer in developing  pheromone traps for the ESFB. Through a few publications of research articles, bulletins etc they could develop traps such as delta trap, sleeve trapand winged trap (Su et al.,2004) and others (Alam et al.,2003,2006)



Next to AVRDC, it is the BCRL (a unit of Pest Control India PVT LMT, Banagalore developed a trap named WOTA –T trap which found to be the panacea as trap for  many insects for pheromone trapping. 

(PCI Pvt Lmt. Division: Bio-control Research Laboratories, Bangalore)

The search for trap for the ESFB is on with other researchers like Centre for Sustainable Agriculture, suggesting a bottle as trap for this insect.




(Centre for Sustainable Agriculture, 12-13-445,
Street no-1, Tarnaka, Secunderabad-500 017-
http://www.takingroots.in ;  Anon,2011.Krishi Gobashona
Foundation, Bangladesh Research Council Campus,
 Farm gate,Dhaka-121.


Delta traps and funnel traps could be used for the EFSB  sex pheromone lures in field conditions. However, the trap design that would attract more numbers of insects will  vary from one location to the other  the traps placed at crop canopy level caught (Srinivasan,2008).

In field trails conducted in India where blends containing between 1 and 10% E11-16: OH caught even more male L. orbonalis than E11-16: Ac alone. At the 1000 μg dose, addition of 1% E11-16: OH to E11-16: Ac was found to be significantly more attractive to male L. orbonalis than either 0.1 or 10% E11-16:OH. Trap catch was found to be positively correlated with pheromone release rate, with the highest dose tested, 3000 μg, catching significantly more male moths than lower doses (Cork et al., 2001).

Significantly more male moths than traps placed 0.5 m above or below the crop canopy in Bangladesh (Cork et al., 2003), whereas traps installed 0.25 m above crop canopy caught higher moths than either at crop canopy or at 0.25 m below crop canopy in Uttar Pradesh (Alam et al., 2003). The traps should be erected at every 10 m or less for effective attraction (Prasad et al., 2005). In general, it has been suggested to place the traps at a density of 100 per ha (Cork et al., 2003). Thus, the EFSB sex pheromone traps as a component of IPM significantly reduced the fruit damage and increased the yield in South Asia (Alam et al., 2003; Cork et al., 2003).

Delta and wing traps baited with synthetic female sex pheromone of L.orbonalis were found to catch and retain ten times more moths than either Spodoptera or uni-trap designs. Locally-produced water and funnel traps were as effective as delta traps, although 'windows' cut in the side panels of delta traps significantly increased trap catch from 0.4 to 2.3 moths per trap per night. Trap catch was found to be proportional to the radius of sticky disc traps in the range 5–20 cm radius, discs with a 2.5 cm radius caught no moths. Wing traps placed at crop height caught significantly more moths than traps placed 0.5 m above or below the crop canopy (Cork et al.,2003).

Installation of pheromone traps @ 75 per hectare, starting from flower bud initiation (45 days old crop) till final harvest and changing the lures at monthly intervals (Hirak Chatterjee,2009). Among lures used from four sources (Agriland, Ganseh, PCI and  Natural Resources Institute, the last source gave the highest trap catches (56 males/trap) in the trail. The variation in moth trapping efficacy of lures marketed by different companies might be due to differences in the type of dispensers, quality and quantity of sex-pheromone.

The IPM strategy based on sex pheromone for managing the L. orbonalis has reduced pesticide abuse and enhanced the activities of natural enemies in Indo-Gangetic plains of South Asia (Srinivasan, 2012). The sex pheromone confused the male adult for mating and thus preventing fertilized egg production by trapping significant number of male moths, which resulted reduction of larval and adult
population build–up (Rahman et al., 2009). Thus, this technology can be expanded as IPM technology may be beneficial in holistic manner (Mathur et al., 2012).

The study revealed that mass trapping of Leucinodes orbonalis moths with the help of plastic funnel traps @ 1 per 100 sq.m. baited with leucilure sex pheromone, clipping of infested shoots at weekly interval starting at 20 days after transplanting (DAT) along with other biopesticides  reduced the shoot infestation to the extent of 80.44% over untreated and 61.64% over without mass trapping. The increase in yield was 44.75% over untreated and 11.76% over without mass trapping (Pawar et al.,2009). 

Mass trapping was successful for ESFB (Krishna Kumar et al.,2005; Cork et al., 2005; Jhala et al., 2005; Krishna Kumar et al., 2005; Mandal et al; 2005; Rath & Dash, 2005 and  Bhanu et al., 2007).

The traps placed at crop canopy level caught significantly more male moths than traps placed 0.5 m above or below the crop canopy in Bangladesh (Cork et al.,2003).  whereas traps installed 0.25 m above crop canopy caught higher moths than either at crop canopy or at 0.25 m below crop canopy in Uttar Pradesh.13The traps should be erected at every 10 m or less for effective attraction (Prasad. et al.,2005).

Pheromone traps were operated with the lure combination of 100:1 of E11-16: Ac and E11-16: OH. The trap consisted of a 3-liter capacity, 22-cm tall rectangular or round clear plastic container. A triangular hole is cut in any two opposite sides starting 3 to 4 cm from the bottom (Mazumder  and Khalequzzaman,2010).


Comparative efficacy of different treatment where pheromone trap (installation of pheromone trap at 65 per hectare, starting from 15 after transplanting till final harvest and changing the lure at monthly interval) was used showed that The pooled data on the male moth catches over time revealed that lure used in the present study was effective with a recorded 53.56 nos of moth catches per trap (Pranab Dutta et al.,2011).

 The results, spraying of spinosad (Libsen 45 SC) in combination with pheromone trap found to be the most effective treatment to reduce shoot (1.16%) and fruit damage (5.95%) in comparison with that in the water-treated control (shoot damage; 26.37% while fruit damage 46.35% respectively) (Mamun et al.,2014).
Azharul Islam (2012)  published a review of pheromone trapping of ESFB giving the various traps used.


(Azharul Islam,2012).


An observations made during the night time between 12 night to 6 AM, the mobility of the adult male was observed at the Vegetable farm, Junagadh Agricultural University. The below shown picture gives an idea of how the males respond to the pheromone lures. Though many adults started flying to-words the trap, they fly almost 1 1/5 meter to 2 meter above the trap and divert its flying down wind while doing so many  moths escape again to-word the wind direction .

Gujarat Agricultural University tested the delta trap and two plastic funnel traps commercialized by two local companies in India. Indian Institute of Vegetable Research tested three traps: a funnel trap, delta trap, and a locally made water-trough trap.  Traps were placed in EFSB-infested eggplant fields just above the crop canopy. The number of male EFSB adults trapped were recorded at regular intervals over varying lengths of time reaching to up to 5 weeks.




Researchers at the Gujarat Agriocultural University (GAU) site, therefore, preferred funnel traps for further studies, especially in the pilot IPM projects on farmers’ fields. Long-lasting funnel traps are commercially produced in India and are reasonably priced. At IIVR, funnel traps consistently trapped more EFSB adults than delta or water trough traps. Weekly moth catches found to be high in funnel trap (18.3) followed by delta (6.03), and water-trough traps (2.8).


Pawar et al. (2009) revealed that mass trapping of Leucinodes orbonalis moths with the help of plastic funnel traps @ 1 per 100 sq.m.baited with leucilure sex pheromone, clipping of infested shoots at weekly interval starting at 20 days after transplanting (DAT), spraying with NSKE 4% four times at an interval of 15 days starting at flowering and destruction of infested fruits after harvest had reduced the shoot infestation to the extent of 80.44% over untreated and 61.64% over without mass trapping. The increase in yield was 44.75% over untreated and 11.76% over without mass trapping.


Hirak Chatterjee (2009) developed a module to manage the brinjal fruit and shoot borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee using a  module with three components i.e. pheromone trap, timely mechanical control and application of azadex (neem based insecticides) was found most effective in reduction of shoot damage (76.59%) followed by the farmer's practice (i.e. twenty times application of insecticides) (76.36%). Whereas highest protection in fruit damage (48.26%) and yield increment (53.19%) were obtained from the practices of setting trap + timely mechanical control and trap + application of azadex, respectively.

Cork et al.(2003) used a Delta and wing traps baited with synthetic female sex pheromone of Leucinodes orbonalis were found to catch and retain ten times more moths than either Spodoptera or uni-trap designs. Locally-produced water and funnel traps were as effective as delta traps, although 'windows' cut in the side panels of delta traps significantly increased trap catch from 0.4 to 2.3 moths per trap per night. Trap catch was found to be proportional to the radius of sticky disc traps in the range 5–20 cm radius, discs with a 2.5 cm radius caught no moths.


Anjali Mathur et al.(2012) have developed a IPM module in  Bt brinjal against the Brinjal shoot and fruit borer, L. orbonalis is a major pest botanicals and microbial formulation and use of female sex pheromones and resistant cultivars to cut down on pest infestations. Field trials were carried out to evaluate different IPM modules for the management of L. orbonalis newer botanical oils of pungam (Pongamia pinnata L.) and iluppai (Madhuca indica) in IPM modules proved to be quite effective in lowering both shoot and fruit infestation and can thus be utilized in resistance management strategy.


Srinivasan (2008) reviewed the brinjal pest management strategies in Southest Asia. Use of EFSB sex pheromone traps based on (E)-11-hexadecenyl acetate and (E)-11-hexadecen-1-ol to continuously trap the adult males significantly reduced the pest damage on eggplant in South Asia. In addition, prompt destruction of pest damaged eggplant shoots and fruits at regular intervals, and withholding of pesticide use to allow proliferation of local natural enemies especially the parasitoid, Trathala flavo-orbitalis reduced the EFSB population. The IPM strategy was implemented in farmers’ fields via pilot project demonstrations in selected areas of Bangladesh and India and its use was promoted in both countries.

Spraying of spinosad (Libsen 45 SC) in combination with pheromone trap found to be the most effective treatment to reduce shoot (1.16%) and fruit damage (5.95%) in comparison with that in the water-treated control (shoot damage; 26.37% while fruit damage 46.35% respectively (Md Abdullah Al Mamun et al., 2014). Mazumder and  Khalequzzaman (2010) suggested that the sex pheromones which have been extensively studied and already are in management programmes should be fine tuned to improve their efficacy in totality in an Integrated Pest Management Programme on the basis of feed back from the extension workers, and farmers. Md. Azharul Islam (2012) revealed that Bangladesh has been enormously successful in increasing pheromone use in agricultural production (especially for vegetables). Understanding of the nature of pheromones and their potential for pest control along with the future prospective of pheromone technique in agriculture were stated.

Md.Azharul Islam (2012) suggested  integrated approaches of pest management have been gaining popularity nowadays, this article outlines all the components of IPM including use of resistant varieties, sex pheromones, cultural methods, physical and mechanical barriers, bio-pesticides and bio-control agents, botanical and chemical means of management including basic biological parameters associated with management.

Rahman et al.(2009) reported that spraying of Marshal® at 2 days interval, mechanical control and using pheromone trap placed at plant canopy and in the centre of the plot, performed the best in all respects ensuring the lowest shoot (6.27%) and fruit (3.19 % by number and 2.83% by weight) infestation, the highest reduction of shoot (79.65%) and fruit (89.03% by number and 90.72% by weight) infestation to compare with control. Pranab Dutta et al.(2011) reported that use of Pheromone trap, mechanical control and application of neem  insecticide) was found best in reduction of shoot damage (86.69%), fruit damage (59.36%) and yield increment (96.94%). The highest total yield of brinjal (50.62 t ha) and BCR (5.81) were found from treatment of  Pheromone trap + Sanitation + Bio-control agent release (Kabir et al., 2010).

Accoding to Cork et al. (2003) among the four traps, the open delta caught significantly greater numbers of EFSB males than other traps. At the same time it is puzzling that in tests at IIVR, significantly more EFSB males were trapped in funnel traps than in delta traps in each of two tests they carried out.

Influence of sex pheromone trap design on catches of male EFSB moths in Jessore, Bangladesh
Trap design               
Moths/trap/night
Delta
0.44 ± 0.50 a
Open delta 
2.34 ± 0.32 b
Water-trough
0.60 ± 0.42 a
Funnel 
0.52 ± 0.04 a
Data are means of 5 replicates, each replicate maintained for 10 nights. Means followed by the  same letter are not significantly different at P < .01 by Newman-Keuls multiple range test on log (X+1) transformed data


Trap height

The height of the dispenser is important to trap the maximum number of males.
The data collected over locations indicated that at 0.5 m height, the males trapped were significantly higher compared to eve 1.5 m height.


In  recent studies by the author and others indicated the difficulty of the designing a trap for the EFSB.   The result have shown that type 1 trap having 54 cm  sleeve with funnel length 6.1 cm and diameter 4.2 cm at bottom and 12 cm at top and the gap between the lid and sleeve was 4 cm with 3.5 cm X 3.0 cm flap, trapped significantly higher number of male moths (8.98 males/ trap / day). The trap (Type 3) having a 55 cm sleeve length, gap between lid of about 3.5 cm and funnel length, diameter at top and bottom of about 4.5 cm, 9.5 cm and 2.5 cm respectively, trapped 2.63 males / trap/day (Table 1).

Effectiveness of market available  pheromone trap & lures of specific trade marks on L. orbonalis  moth catch in brinjal*
Type of trap
Mean (Over period of 4 weeks)
Type1
8.98a
Type2
5.88b
Type3
2.63c
* Mean followed by the same letter are not significantly differ by LSD (P= 0.05)

In the second trial, the type 1 trap, which trapped significantly higher male in the first trial along with Type 3 trap and one other trap (Type 4). In all three type of traps we used effective lure of first trial (Type 1 lure). The type 4 trap having 62 cm sleeve length with gap between lid and sleeve was about 4.0 cm and 10 and 3.3 cm of funnel top and bottom diameter respectively, showed consistent difference in their trapability than type 3 trap. In these trails, the type 1 and type 4 traps showed its efficiency in trapping the males of L. orbonalis (7.8 and 7.87 males/trap/day, respectively), When 10 days continuous observation were made (Table 2).

Effectiveness of market available  pheromone trap on L. orbonalis  moth catch in brinjal*

Type of trap
Mean (Over period of  10 days)
Type1
7.80a
Type3
0.87b
Type4
7.87c
* Mean followed by the same letter are not significantly differ by LSD (P= 0.05)

After these two trials, based on the males trapped,  some essential modification were  made  in the trap to be used for L. orbonalis. Keeping this idea in mind we have effected 11 modification in effective type 1 trap. These traps were replicated thrice and arranged in CRBD. The traps were run for one month and observation were made once in three days.

The result indicated that the modified type 1 trap containing original gap of 3.5 cm between lid and sleeve with no funnel trapped consistently higher number of males i.e. 100 per cent efficiently as compared to original type 1 trap. However when the gap between lid and sleeve was reduced to 2 cm with no funnel, there was increase in its efficiently (117.14%). The data in table  3 indicated that there was negative effect in all the four cases     ( treatment number 5 to 8), when gap between lid and sleeve reduce to 3.0 cm from their original gap (3.5 cm). There was also fewer males caught in case of type1 M1 (39 males/ 4 weeks) and type1 M2 (38 males/4 weeks) as compared to type1 M11 (76 males/ 4 weeks). This has given ample idea of the typical type of trap to be used in the brinjal ecosystem for L. orbonalis.

In the mean time Pets Control India (P) Ltd has introduced their own trap for  sugarcane ecosystem i.e, Wata T Trap.  This is a funnel like trap containing water for trapping sugarcane inter-node males using pheromone (Jayanth  and  Bhanu, 2004). Based on these experiments the ideal type of trap should be type 1 with a simple modification of keeping gap between lid and the sleeve only 2 cm with no funnel is required. We propose to recommend only the original trap having 2cm gap, with out funnel and with flap for efficient trapping of the males of the EFSB.
The gap between lure and the mouth was found to be important as with the gap of 3cm and with 2 cm between mouth and the lure, a quantum jump of the males trapped resulted compared to the original trap which was 100% to 117% respectively.

For the mass trapping of the L. orbonalis males, the trap design should be as simple as possible with 2 or 3.5  cm gap between the lid and the mouth  with no funnel and flap length should be 3.5 cm and kept at 1.5 m from soil surface. The sleeve length should be 62 cm in length . The trap should have a handle for tying to bamboo stick which is cheap and easy for operation.



Male moths of L. orbonalis catches in different types of modified traps
Period
Pheromone trap

Wota T
(Castor oil)
Wota T
( with water + kerosene)
Wota T
(with water)
Stika 4D
Sleeve trap
Mean
4.8
21.49
5.84
4.69
5.13

                            
:                           

Treat (T) 
SEm               
0.75
CD               
2.07*    




Nandagopal et al. (2010) reported a pheromone trap which is  designed and  used by  PCI India.  They have used three types of  traps as follows:

The designs of the various types of traps used in the experiment are as follows.

1. Sleeve trap:  It has 62 cm sleeve length with funnel top and bottom diameter 12 cm and  4.2 cm respectively. The gap between the lid and funnel top is 3.5 cm with  3.5 cm X 3.5 cm flap.

2. Acrylic sticka trap : 30 cm length X 10 cm width (triangle) with square mobility hole of 12 cm length X 10 cm width on both with one taken upward and another taken downward, altogether four holes.

3. Wota- T trap: Designed and patented by PCI, Bangalore. It consists of  an adaptor, basin to hold water and a lure holder with canopy.

The results indiacted that sleeve trap and acrylic sticka trap were least efficient trapping 5.13 and 4.69 male moths/ 3 nights/trap respectively. Whereas, funnel trap proved to be superior to delta traps in Uttar Pradesh (Alam et al., 2003). It was interesting to note that   lowest number of  moths were caught in  acrylic sticka trap. Whereas, Cork et al., (2003) reported that delta and wing traps baited with synthetic female sex pheromone of L. orbonalis caught and retained ten times more moths than either Spodoptera or uni-trap designs. Locally-produced water and funnel traps were as effective as delta traps, although 'windows' cut in the side panels of delta traps significantly increased trap catch from 0.4 to 2.3 moths per trap per night.

The number of male moths trapped in Wota –T trap   with water  as trapping material and sleeve trap is low (4.8  and 5.13 male moths/ 3 days/trap respectively). The reason could be, in these traps  the moths after searching for females which found otherwise escape from the lure in doing so only a limited number of moths take a downward movement and get trapped in castor and in sleeve respectively hence reducing the efficiency. The number of moths trapped in sticka trap was significantly lower  4.69 mean male moths/ 3 nights/trap since the efficiency would be determined only by the ability of the adhesive to retain insects and might be expected  to be dependent on the area of the plate (Cork, 2004).

Several trap designs including funnel type trap, delta trap and water trough trap were tried at Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi. They found that the funnel type trap caught more EFSB adults than delta or water trough traps. Whereas, similar experiment conducted at Anand, Gujarat and they found that the delta traps were consistently caught more EFSB male adults than the other trap designs. But due to its sticky surface and prohibitive cost, funnel trap was more preferred over delta trap (AVRDC, 2003). However for the sake of economy, convenience, and local availability, the funnel trap popularly used in India and home made water trough trap in Bangladesh. (Alam et al., 2003).

The efficacy of certain types of traps in catching male moths is a function of behaviour of that insect species. The aim of selecting any trap, especially for  mass trapping should  be to use one that catches  the maximum  number of adults at any given time. To conclude, for the mass trapping of the L. orbonalis males, Wota -  T trap with water + kerosene can be used for efficient trapping of the males of the EFSB. It requires detail investigation to know  why different traps were effective in different regions for the same pest.

The results indicated that  the intensity of damage (%) and bore holes (%) differed significantly  in plots where pheromone traps were installed compared to control (Table 3). The maximum intensity of damage (%) and bore holes (%) was recorded in plots with out pheromone traps.  The per cent damage ranged from 4.1 to 5.53 and 17.24 in plots with  traps and control, respectively. The per cent bore hole intensity  ranged from 5.29 to 8.59 and 28.26 in plots with traps and control respectively.  Results showed that use of sex pheromone traps of EFSB significantly reduced the fruit damage. Similarly, Jhala (2004) reported 53-86 per cent reduction in fruit damage by L. orbonalis over control by using pheromone traps  in Gujarat.   This shows the effectiveness of sex pheromone which can be used as a component in IPM of L. orbonalis. Similarly, Rashid et al., (2003) emphasized installation of pheromone lures to trap male EFSB moths as a component of  IPM strategy for lower production costs and higher net incomes.


It is a challenge for entomologist to develop a more efficient trap for  Leucinodes orbonalis. So let us spent time during the calling time of female and observe with different traps on the mobility of the males to lure and how they escape.  



References:


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