Use of Pheromones in managing insects of Storage
V
Nandagopal1, Anand Prakash2 and T. V. Prasad3
1Ex. Senior
Scientist, CRRI, Cuttack,Odhisa
2HOD, Crop Protection,
CRRI, Cuttack,Odhisa
3Senior
Scientist, NBPGR, Pusa, New Delhi-110012
Two major groups
of the most economically important post-harvest insect pests: Coleoptera
(beetles) and Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies). Several Coleopteran and
Lepidopteran species attack crops both in the field and in store. Crop damage
by Lepidoptera is only done by the larvae. Several lepidopteran larvae entangle
the feeding media through silky secretion which turns products into entwined
lumps. In the case of Coleoptera, both larvae and adults often feed on the crop
and the two stages are responsible for the damage.
Post-harvest
insect pests may be primary, i.e. able to attack intact grains such as the
genus Sitophilus, while others are secondary pests, attacking already
damaged grains or grain products such as the genus Tribolium. The
following is a list of the most common post-harvest and storage pests, their
biology, distribution and common host plants.
Coleoptera is
the largest order of insects and contains the most common and important stored
product pests. Adults have their forewings modified as hard elytra. Beetles
inhabit a wide variety of habitats and can be found almost everywhere. Those
associated with stored products exhibit different behavioural types; some are
primary and secondary pests feeding directly on the product, others are general
scavengers, fungus feeders, wood borers or predators of other insects. arvae
lack the presence of prolegs (abdominal legs) and only possess true legs on the
three thoracic segments. Larvae of a few species may also lack true legs, e.g. Sitophilus
spp.
Curculionidae (Snout Beetles)
This is a large
group of beetles that contains some of the most serious crop and stored grain
pests. Members of this family are characterised by the form of the snout
(rostrum) which is elongated in most species. This family contains the most
destructive stored grains pests in the world.
Rice Weevil: Sitophilus
oryzae (L.) (=Calandraoryzae L.)
Maize
Weevil:
Sitophilus zeamais Motsch. (=
Calandra zeamais Motsch.)
Granary
Weevil:
Sitophilus granarius (L.)
The first two
species are major primary pests that have a virtually cosmopolitan distribution
throughout the warmer parts of the world. The rice weevil (S. oryzae)
mainly attacks rice and wheat in stores, while S. zeamais is a serious
primary pest of stored maize. However, both species are able to develop on all
cereals, dried cassava and other processed food products. The two species are
morphologically identical. In Europe, the two species are replaced by the
granary weevil, S. granarius, which is wingless and can be distinguished
by the sculpturing on the prothorax and elytera.
Natural
history:
The life cycle
and damage caused by both S. oryzae and S. zeamais are similar.
However, S. zeamais is a little larger (5 mm in length) and a very
active flier. Infestation usually starts in the field and later continues in
the store. Both species are capable of inhibiting reserved breeding grounds
near the threshing floors that are normally full of plant residues, where the
population builds up in before moving to granaries. Adult females chew grains
creating a small hole in which they lay eggs and then seal the hole with a
secretion. The optimum temperature for oviposition is around 25oC
and at grain moisture contents of over 10 percentage (Brich, 1944). Larvae
tunnel in grains and are responsible for most of the damage. Pupation takes
place inside the grain and adults chew their way out through the outer layer of
the grain. Adults live for 5-6 months depending on the temperature and humidity
of grains (Kuschel, 1961; Giles, 1969; Mound, 1989). S. oryzae adult females can lay more
than 500 eggs during their lifetime. The optimal temperature for development is
300C with maximum oviposition taking place at 18 percentage
humidity. The rice weevil can live without food for 6-32 days depending on
temperature. This species is highly affected by changes in temperature; all
stages die in about a week at 00C. On the other hand, S. zeamais
tolerates lower temperatures than S. oryzae and can live for 37 days at
00C (Floyd, & Newsom, 1959; Stoyanova, 1984; Zewar, 1993).
Tribolium
confusum J. du Val (Tenebrionidae-
Darkling beetles)
This is a large
and varied group of insects that contains more than 10,000 species of which
about 100 are associated with stored products. Most of the tenebrionids are
black or dark brown in colour and mainly phytophagous. Adults are characterised
by the tarsi of the hind leg with only four segments. Infestation by these
beetles results in an unappealing smell due to the secretion of benzoquinones
from abdominal glands. The following tenebrionids are serious secondary pests
of stored grains and flour.
Confused flour beetle:
These two
species are probably the most common secondary pests of all plant commodities
in store throughout the world. Several other species of Tribolium are
occasional minor pests and can be found in almost every store containing
infested cereals or cereal products, specially in tropical and sub-tropical climates.
Both species attack maize, wheat, flour and other foodstuffs, but T.
confusum does not seem to be as common as T. castaneum in tropical
climates (see Hill, 1987; Mills & White, 1994). Members of genus Tribolium
are known to produce toxic quinones which contaminate flour and flour products
(Gorham, 1989). Damage is done by both larvae and adults specially to broken or
damaged grains.
Natural history:
T. castaneum
adult females lay small, cylindrical, white eggs scattered in the product. At
an optimum temperature of 32.50C, females lay up to 11 eggs daily.
Larvae are yellowish with a pale brown head, and they live inside grains until
pupation. Adults are about 3-4 mm long and can live for a year or more. Females
are highly fecund and able to lay a maximum of 1000 eggs during a lifetime,
with 400C and 220C as upper and lower limits for
development. This species is also highly tolerable to humidity as low as 11
percentage. Adults are highly adapted to feed on a very wide range of
commodities and perfect colonizers of new habitats. In tropical conditions,
this species is dominant to T. confusum (Howe, 1962; Dawson, 1977).
The confused
flour beetle, T. confusum, is often confused with T. castaneum
but they can be separated using the last three segments of the antenna which
are much larger than the rest in T. castaneum and forming a club, while
the last five segments in T. confusum gradually enlarge towards the tip.
Just like T. castaneum, the confused flour beetle develops in crushed
grain products and a constant inhabitant of flour mills specially in the
temperate regions of the world. In contrast to T. castaneum, this
species is not able to fly, but has a long life span that can reach three years
under moderate climatic conditions (25-300C) (see Sokoloff, 1972;
1974; 1977).
Yellow mealworm beetle: Tenebrio molitor L.
Natural history:
Tenebrio
beetles are black or dark brown and they feed as larvae and adults on grain
products. T. molitor is an important post-harvest pest and occurs spread
all over the world. Adults are elongate, 16 mm long, and active fliers. Females
can lay up to 600 eggs during its lifetime. Larvae firstly eat the germs of
stored grains and can feed on a wide variety of plant products such as ground
grains, flour, tobacco and foodstuffs. Larvae are very voracious and highly
resistant to low temperature; they can remain alive for 80 days at -50C.
Other
tenebrionids are less common polyphagous pests around the globe such as T.
destructor, T. madens and Palorus depressus.
Bostrichidae (Branch and twig borers)
Members of this
family are elongate with the head bent down ventrally to the thorax. Adults are
characterised by rasp-like hooks on the pronotum. Most of the species are
borers in wood or roots. Wood boring activities of these beetles may weaken
timbers or wooden walls of the stores. This family contains two serious stored
grain pests:
The lesser grain
borer (R. dominica) attacks a wide range of stored cereals. It can be
found attacking cassava, flour and other cereal products and is also able to
attack rough rice grains. The pest originated from South America, but is now
found in all the warmer parts of the world. This species is a serious pest in
Australia, from where it was carried to the USA and other parts of the world
during World War I. Adults of this species are tiny dark beetles, 2-3 mm in
length, and are very voracious with a long life span. Females may continue to
lay eggs for four months and are able to lay up to 500 eggs at 340C.
They feed externally on grains and lay eggs on their surface. Larvae feed
either externally or inside the grain and pupation takes place within the eaten
grain. Larval development is relatively faster when fed on whole grains than on
flour. Both adults and larvae eat the endosperm leaving powdered grains. This
dust can accumulate on the walls of the warehouses and it is a sign of high
infestation. Though are not common on pulses, adults are able to breed in
grains that are too dry for fast development of Sitophilus. At 340C,
development is possible on grains with moisture contents as low as 9
percentage, and they can daily destroy grains equal to their body weight (see
Birch, 1945; Fisher, 1950; Aitken, 1975).
Bruchidae (Seed beetles)
Most bruchids
are short, stout-bodied beetles with a short forewing not reaching the tip of
the abdomen. Adults are characterised by their compact hairy bodies and
relatively long antennae. Larvae of most species feed inside seeds and some
develop in stored dry grains or legumes. All bruchids are phytophagous with
most species able to avoid feeding on seed covers that contain toxins. This
family contains several important field and stored crop pests.
Cowpea weevil: Callosobruchus maculatus
(Fabricius)
This is an
important pest that mainly attacks beans of various species, and can
alternatively attack other pulse crops (Lienard and Seck, 1994). This species
originated in Africa but is now found all over the tropics and sub-tropics.
Adults are 2-4 mm, brownish with black markings. They have a short life span of
about 12 days and do not feed. Two forms of this species have been identified;
the active (flying) form and the flightless form. The flying form disperses and
colonises cowpea fields. Adult females lay about 100 eggs glued to the seed
surface or to pods. Larvae tunnel inside the seed where the entire development
takes place. In the store, the normal form continues to reproduce until the end
of the storage season. The flying form appears again in response to disperses
to new locations. This species causes major problems in Nigeria and Niger,
where most of Africa's cowpeas are produced (Alebeek, 1996). Other species such
as C. rhodesianus and C. subinnotatus may also be important in
some parts of Eastern and Central Africa (Gillon et al., 1992; Giga et
al., 1993).
American bean weevil: Acanthoscelides
obtectus Say (Bruchus obtectus Say).
This
species is widely distributed in Africa, Central and South America, New
Zealand, USA and Southern Europe.
A. obtectus exhibits high tolerance to
varied degrees of temperature, thus, it is found in cool highland areas as well
as the warmer parts of the tropics. It mainly attacks beans of various types
and other pulse crops. Adults are grey and oblong in shape, with the body
covered by yellowish green hairs. Females are almost twice as large as males.
Infestation starts in the field when females lay eggs on the mature beans in
plant pods. Larvae are tiny with strong mandibles and feed inside the seeds
where life cycle is completed. Adults exit the seed through
Cucujidae (Flat bark beetles)
Members of this
family are small flattened beetles, mostly found under the bark of trees or in
tunnels made by other beetles. This family contains one common pest of stored
grains.
Red rust grain beetle: Cryptolestes
ferrugineus (Stephens)
Adults of this
species are oblong flattened small beetles (1.5-2 mm long), with the head and
prothorax relatively big and conspicuous. C. ferrugineus is a widespread
secondary pest of stored grains, specially in the humid tropics. The genus Cryptolestes
was reported to be of economic importance towards the end of the maize storage
season in Togo (Pantenius, 1988). However, it might not be as serious as other
pests in stores, often following an infestation by other insects. It usually
attacks the germs of broken or cracked grains thus reducing germination. Other
species such as C. pusillus (Schonherr) and C. pusilloides (Steel
and Howe) are common in humid areas of the tropics (Banks, 1979).
Silvanidae: This
family was formerly included in Cucujidae. It includes two important species:
Saw-toothed grain
beetle: Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L), recognized by the toothed lateral
margins of the pronotum.
Merchant grain beetle:
Oryzaephilus mercator (Fauvel), which is found in association with O.
surinamensis.
Both species are
virtually cosmopolitan and they infest a wide variety of stored grains,
processed foodstuff and other food products. They are mainly secondary on
stored products following more destructive primary pests. However, O.
surinamensis prefers cereal products while O. mercator is more
frequent on oil-seed products and more temperature sensitive. They enter
damaged grains and feed specially on the germ. Optimum conditions for
development are between 30- 350C and 70-90 percentage relative
humidity.
Natural history:
Adults are 3 mm
flattened narrow winged beetles but they rarely fly. Females lay their eggs
loosely within the stored products. Larvae are free living and start by feeding
on the embryo and the endosperm. They require 60-90 percentage humidity for
optimal development, and neither species cannot develop or breed at
temperatures less than 190C. All stages die in ten minutes if
exposed to 550C (Howe, 1956; Halstead, 1980).
Dermestidae (Skin beetles)
Members of this
family are ovoid in shape with hairy or sometimes scaly bodies. Larvae are very
hairy. When stores are infested, these setae may be seriously hazardous if
inhaled by workers. This family contains a number of very destructive and
economically important species. One of the most serious stored product pests
that belong to this family is the khapra beetle: Trogoderma granarium
Everts. Apparently the only phytophagous species in the genus Trogoderma.
A native of India, the Khapra beetle is now found in most parts of the world
specially hot and dry areas. Adults are oval, red brown insects with a dark
thorax. Adult females may lay up to 120 eggs within the stored products. Larvae
are considered primary pests as they attack undamaged grains and seeds and bore
into stored pulses. They are highly mobile, and in the absence of food they
enter a diapause that might last for more than two years, in which they can be
highly resistant to the application of pesticides or fumigation. Adults are 3-4
mm long, dark wingless beetles that do not feed. Populations of this pest build
up rapidly, especially in the hot humid tropics. This species was apparently
eradicated in the United States and the former Soviet Union. It also seems to
be absent from East and southern Africa (Banks, 1977; Rebolledo & Arroyo,
1995; Sudesh et al., 1996 b).
Anobiidae
Anobiids are
cylindrical pubescent beetles, 1-9 mm in length. The head is usually concealed
from above by the hoodlike pronotum. Most anobiids live in dry vegetable materials
or bore in wood, while others are fungus feeders. About 1000 species of
Anobiidae are known, most of which are found in the tropics. The following are
two widespread storage pests belonging to this family.
Cigarette beetle:
Lasioderma serricorne (Fabricius) is a common pest of stored cereals,
cocoa beans, tobacco, ground nut, peas, beans, flours and other foodstuffs.
Originally from South America, it is now found in most of the warmer parts of
the world. This species is notorious for attacking a wide range of intact
cereal grains, pulse seeds and food stuffs.
Natural history:
Adults can breed
anywhere at optimum temperatures of around 28-320C and a relative
humidity of 75 percentage. Newly hatched larvae are very active and responsible
for most of the damage. Adults are small brown beetles and the only damage they
cause is due to their emergence holes. This pest can be controlled if exposed
to temperatures below 180C. At 550C, all stages die in
two hours (see Howe, 1957; Lefkovitch & Currie, 1967).
Drug store beetle:
Stegobium paniceum (Linnaeus) Another widespread pest that infests
several cereals, but less common than L. serricorne in the tropics.
Lepidoptera is
the second most important order of insects pests of stored products. Adults are
active flyers with two pairs of scaly wings. Mouthparts of the adults are
modified to suck plant nectar or other fluids and are not able to chew, while
those of the larvae possess well-developed mandibles. Larvae are distinguished
from beetle larvae by their pseudopods (false legs) on some of the abdominal
segments. Lepidoptera larvae occur frequently in a wide range of habitats and
are known for their silk-spinning activities that result in the additional loss
of quality of stored products. Some species attack the product in both the
field and store. Several moths are pests of the ripening crop and their larvae
can be found in recently harvested stored grains. They either continue their
attack for a short time in the store or form an entry point for further attack
by true storage pests. The following families contain the most economically
important lepidoptera post-harvest pests.
Pyralidae
Pyralidae is a
large family, of which only a few species are stored product pests. Most
pyralids are small and delicate moths. Members of this family exhibit a great
deal of variation in appearance and habits. Larvae of all species possess
glands which secrete silk with which they interlink food products as they move.
This family is divided into a number of subfamilies, with the subfamily
Phycitinae containing some of the most important stored grain pests. The
best-known species in this subfamily are the following:
The
Mediterranean flour moth: Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller).
Adults are
similar to E. cautella but the body is relatively longer. A major pest
of flour mills, its main habitats are flour and grout mills, corn milling
plants, bakeries and any other place used for processing grains or preparing
flour products. E. kuehniella occurs in most of the temperate and
sub-tropical parts of the world, where average temperatures are around 200C-250C.
Complete development requires about 74 days at 250C and 75
percentage relative humidity. Larvae entwine all the material on which they
feed resulting in solid lumps of food particles, faeces and larval exuviae (see
Jacob & Cox, 1977; Locatelli & Biglia, 1995).
Indian meal moth:
Plodia interpunctella (Hübner)
This insect
feeds mainly on meals and flours but can attack raisins, nuts and some pulses
and whole cereals. The Indian meal moth is distributed all over the tropics and
sub-tropics and in some parts of the temperate regions, specially in heated
buildings. In the hot tropics, it is more abundant in cooler highland areas.
Most of the damage occurs due to larval feeding on the germinal part of the
grains. Damage also occurs through the contamination of foodstuff with dead
larvae, frass and silk webbing.
Natural history:
Larvae feed in
tubes they weave from silk secretions. Adult females stick about 200-400 eggs
to the substrate or to the storage walls. Larvae develop and feed within the
substrate and are sensitive to changes in temperature. The number of
generations may be only two per year in Europe, but increases in the tropics to
eight generations. Complete development takes about 27 days at 300C
and 70 percentage relative humidity. Development ceases below 150C.
All stages die at 550C in five hours (see Bell, 1975; Aitken, 1984;
Locatelli & Biglia, 1995).
Gelechiidae
Gelechiidae is a
large family of lepidoptera. All moths are small in size and several species
are important plant pests. This family contains two serious post-harvest pests:
Angoumois grain moth:
Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier)
The presence of pheromone in Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella was first
demonstrated by KEYS and MILLS (1968) using extraction of a sex attractant from
female and described it as benzene. The
actual pheromone chemicals of the angoumois grain moth was reported by VICK et al. (1974) followed by SU and MAHANY (1974); HAMMOUD and
DESCOINS, 1978; ODINOKOV et al.,
1998) as (Z, E)-7,11-hexadecadien-1-ol acetate.
This single component is one of the two major components along with
Z7E11-16Ald of the pheromones of citrus leafminer moth, Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton (Lepidoptera: Phyllocnistidae)
(ANDO et al., 1985). Some of the other species utilize
(Z,E)-7,11-Hexadecadienyl acetate in its chemical communication system are Uliaria rasilella
(Lepidoptera:Gelechiidae), Dichomeris
oceanis (Leidoptera:, Gelechiidae), Scrobipalpa
sp. (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), Pectinophora endema; Pink bollworm Pexicopia malvella; Hollyhock seed moth Pexicopia sp. (Lepidoptera:
Gelechiidae), Stathmopoda theoris (Lepidoptera: Stathmopodidae), Diarsia canescens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
(http://www.herobase.net/ database/ compound /compounds - detail- Z7E11-16A c.
php).
In India, the sticky traps developed at the Central
Food Technological Institute in Mysore, India, baited with female pheromone
were compared with a commercially available Zoecon Corporation trap for
monitoring the stored products pest, S.
cerealella in rice stores at Mysore, India. The sticky trap was superior to
the Zoecon trap but tend to collect dust and dry quickly (Karan-Singh and
Majumder 1989). Apart from this information no other work was reported on this
insect. In Western countries monitoring of Angoumois grain moth the delta trap
is baited with rubber dispenser is used in godown. Based on the experience
gained in India of working on various families/orders of insects of major
crops, there are possibilities of improving the trap for efficient trapping was
felt. This has prompted us to think of
using some locally available materials for use as trap for trapping of males more efficiently.
This species is
a serious primary pest that mainly attacks maize, wheat and sorghum, both in
the field and in stores. A recent survey in southern Ethiopia revealed that
this pest alone was responsible for 11.2 to 13.5 percentage weight loss in
stored maize (Emana & Assefa, 1998). Infestation with S. cerealella
starts in the field as females lay their eggs, singly or in groups, on grains.
Larvae start feeding inside the grains, while still in the milk stage, and
spend their entire life inside one grain. Thus, infestation is difficult to
detect at this stage. Adults leave a conspicuous emergence hole at one end of the
kernel. Infested grains are characterised by this circular window created by
the larvae. Stored grains may be completely destroyed. Adults are active
fliers, thus, they are able to infest neighbouring granaries, which is known as
"cross-infestation". This pest is distributed throughout the warmer
parts of the world (Africa, South and Latin America and southern Asia and
Australia) (Grewal and Atwal, 1969; Boldt, 1974)
In a
recent study, Nandagopal et al., (2010) reported an efficient
trap for this insect in storage. Based
on the results as given above, the
recommendation for the use of delta trap
for trapping the males of S. cereallela was found to be sufficient for monitoring of
the occurrence of this species. However,
the purpose of recommending a plastic trap which proved its efficiency of
significantly higher mass trapping of
the fresh or established population S.
cereallela. The return movements of
the males which orient 70 º angle of return facilitated for expanding the area
of trapping the males from delta trap to a simple plastic trap. During the
course of observation /counting of trapped males it was noted that the entire
area of the trappable area were filled with males. This has suggested to go for expanding the area further, which proved to increase
the number of males trapped to an increase of 101%.
To conclude, the use of plastic tray fitted with the
pheromone lure is recommended for mass trapping in the stored paddy. Further studies on the number of traps to be used for monitoring/ unit
area, number of trap used for mass trapping/unit area, longevity of the lure
(self life) under godown conditions are under way.
Potato tuberworm:
Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) = (Gnorimoschema operculella
(Zeller))
This species is
a cosmopolitan pest of potatoes, tomatoes and eggplants. It attacks plants
mainly in the field, but continues to feed on tubers in storage. Larvae mine in
the leaves and stems and later bore into the tubers. Damage can be seen on
leaves as silver spots due to the tunnelling larvae, or as tunnels in the plant
stem.
Natural history:
Each female lays
about 150-200 eggs and larvae tunnel through leaves and stem down to the tuber
where pupation may take place. In the store, eggs are laid individually on the
tubers near the eyes or on sprouts. P. operculella is an important pest
in traditional potato stores in North Africa (Arx et al., 1987; Lagnaoui
et al., 1996. See also Haines, 1977). High infestations of up to 50
percentage of tubers can take place in Yemen due to this pest (Kroschel, 1994).
Acaridae
Flour mite: Acarus
siro
Mites are widely
distributed tiny arthropods. They can live and develop on various plant in the
field or indoors. Mites can be found in granaries, feed mixing plants,
threshing floors, stacks of hay and straw, dead organic matter, soil or plant
residues. Several species are predacious on other mites or insects. Mites are
easily transmitted by virtue of their tiny size which allows them to be carried
with dust, winds, insects, birds or rodents. About 30 mite species are known to
be associated with stored products. Family Acaridae contains some damaging
species, in which Acarus siro is probably the most important and
commonly encountered mite in granaries. This mite is about 0.7 mm in length
with an oval body. A. siro is a widely distributed polyphagous species
that can be found on almost all products of plant or animal origin. It requires
relatively high humidity (70 percentage), with humidities below 11 percentage
being lethal to the mite. Temperatures below -150C for 24 hours kill
all stages. At 600C, all stages die in 5 minutes.
Attacked grains
lose nutrients and the ability to germinate due to feeding on the germ. Crushed
bodies of Acarus cause coloration in flour that reduces the products
value. Under normal conditions, this mite develops according to the following
pattern: egg, larva, nymph I, nymph II, and adult. Some strains of A. siro
may produce hypopus under favourable conditions. Hypopus is a diapause form
that can be carried by rodents or insects to other storing places. However,
this species does not seem to occur in most of the tropical lowlands, though it
might sometimes infest grains in cooler upland areas (see Haines, 1991).
|
|
Insect
|
Pheromone
|
Purpose
|
Reference
|
|
Linnaeus
|
Butan-1-ol
3-Methylbutan-1-ol
Pentanal
2-Methyl-3-hydroxy-4-pyranone
4-Hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde
|
A
|
|
|
|
E2 9Ald;
(E)-2-Nonenal
1-(4-Eethylphenyl)-ethanone
|
A
|
|
|
|
(2S,3R)-1-Ethylpropyl
2-methyl-3-hydroxypentanoate
|
PM
Agg. pheromone
|
|
|
|
“
|
“
|
|
|
|
“
|
“
|
|
|
|
(4S,5R)-5-Hydroxy-4-methylheptan-3-one
Pentanal
2-Methyl-3-hydroxy-4-pyranone
4-Hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde
|
“
|
|
|
|
(4S,5R)-5-Hydroxy-4-methylheptan-3-one
|
“
|
|
|
|
“
|
P
Agg. pheromone
|
|
|
|
“
|
PM
Agg. pheromone
|
|
|
|
(4S,5R)-5-Hydroxy-4-methylheptan-3-one
|
PL
|
|
|
|
2-(4-Methylcyclohex-3-enyl)-propan-2-ol
|
AL
Repellant
|
|
|
|
(4S,5R)-5-Hydroxy-4-methylheptan-3-one
|
PM
Agg. pheromone
|
|
|
|
(4S,5R)-5-Hydroxy-4-methylheptan-3-one
|
P
Agg. pheromone
|
|
|
|
(4S,5R)-5-Hydroxy-4-methylheptan-3-one
|
PM
Agg. pheromone
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4,8-Dimethyldecanal
1-Pentadecene
|
P
Agg Pheromone
|
|
|
|
4,8-Dimethyldecanal
|
PM
Agg Pheromone
|
|
|
|
4,5-Dimethyldecanal
|
P
Agg Pheromone
|
|
|
|
(Z)-2-Nonenyl propionate
|
PF
|
|
|
|
4,8-Dimethyldecanal
|
PF
Agg Pheromone
|
|
|
|
4R,8S)-4,8-Dimethyldecanal
4R,8R)-4,8-Dimethyldecanal
|
PM
Agg Pheromone
|
|
|
|
4R,8R)-4,8-Dimethyldecanal
|
PM
Agg Pheromone
|
|
|
|
Tribolure ng3.2:
4,8-Dimethyldecanal
|
Agg Pheromone
|
|
|
|
2-Ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone
2-Methyl-1,4-benzoquinone
1,4-Benzoquinone
1-Pentadecene
|
P
|
|
|
|
4,8-Dimethyldecanal
1-Pentadecene
|
P
Agg Pheromone
|
|
|
|
Tribolure:
4,8-Dimethyldecanal
|
PM
Agg Pheromone
|
|
|
|
2-Ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone
2-Methyl-1,4-benzoquinone
1,4-Benzoquinone
1-Pentadecene
|
AI
|
|
|
|
1-Pentadecene
16Hy:
Hexadecane
1-Heptadecene
Heptadecadiene
|
P
M & F
Agg. Pheromone
|
|
|
|
1-Pentadecene
-Methyl-1,4-benzoquinone
2-Ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone
|
AI
M & F
Defense substance
|
|
|
|
-Methyl-1,4-benzoquinone
2-Ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone
|
AI
M & F
Defense substance
|
|
|
|
(Z)-3-Dodecenyl acetate
|
PM
|
|
|
|
2-Methyl-1,4-benzoquinone
3-Methylphenol
|
AI
M & F
|
|
|
|
|
P F ng
|
|
|
Rhizopertha dominica
(Fabricius)
|
(S)-1-Methylbutyl
(E)-2-methyl-2-pentenoate
(S)-1-Methylbutyl
(E)-2,4-dimethyl-2-pentenoate
|
P L mg
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
|
(S)-1-Methylbutyl (E)-2-methyl-2-pentenoate
(S)-1-Methylbutyl
(E)-2,4-dimethyl-2-pentenoate
|
P M
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
|
(S)-1-Methylbutyl
(E)-2,4-dimethyl-2-pentenoate
(S)-1-Methylbutyl
(E)-2-methyl-2-pentenoate
|
P L
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
|
(S)-1-Methylbutyl
(E)-2-methyl-2-pentenoate
|
P L
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
|
(S)-1-Methylbutyl
(E)-2-methyl-2-pentenoate
(S)-1-Methylbutyl
(E)-2,4-dimethyl-2-pentenoate
|
P
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
|
(S)-1-Methylbutyl
(E)-2,4-dimethyl-2-pentenoate
|
P
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
Oryzaephilus surinamensis
(L)
|
(E)-2-Nonenal
1-(4-Eethylphenyl)-ethanone
|
A
|
|
|
|
1-Octen-3-ol
3-Methylbutan-1-ol
1-Octen-3-one
Octan-3-ol
Octan-3-one
2-Phenylethanol
Ethanol
|
K H
|
|
|
|
(Z,Z)-3,6-Dodecadien-11-olide
(Z,Z)-3,6-Dodecadienolide
(Z,Z)-3,6-Dodecadienolide
1-Octen-3-ol
Octan-3-one
Nonanal
|
P M
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
|
(Z,Z)-3,6-(11R)-Dodecadien-11-olide
(Z,Z)-5,8-Tetradecadien-13-olide
(Z,Z)-3,6-Dodecadienolide
(Z)-5-Tetradecen-13-olide
|
P
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
|
2-Methylpropanoic
acid
Butyric acid
2-Methylbutanoic
acid
Hexanoic acid
|
K H
|
|
|
|
(Z,Z)-3,6-Dodecadien-11-olide
(Z,Z)-3,6-Dodecadienolide
(Z,Z)-5,8-Tetradecadien-13-olide
|
P M
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
|
(E)-2-Nonenal
(E,E)-2,4-Nonadienal
Hexanal
Heptanal
Octanal
(E)-2-Heptenal
Furan-2-carbaldehyde
Propanal
Formaldehyde
|
A
M |& |F
|
|
|
|
Propanal
|
F
|
|
|
Oryzaephilus mercator
(Fauvel)
|
1-Octen-3-ol
3-Methylbutan-1-ol
1-Octen-3-one
Octan-3-ol
Octan-3-one
|
K H
|
|
|
|
(Z)-3-(11R)-Dodecen-11-olide
(Z,Z)-3,6-(11R)-Dodecadien-11-olide
(Z)-5-Tetradecen-13-olide
|
P
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
|
(Z)-3-(11R)-Dodecen-11-olide
(Z,Z)-3,6-(11R)-Dodecadien-11-olide
|
P
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
|
(Z,Z)-3,6-(11R)-Dodecadien-11-olide
(Z)-3-(11R)-Dodecen-11-olide
|
P M
Agg.
Pheromone
|
|
|
Trogoderma granarium
Everts
|
(R)-(Z)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecenal
(R)-(E)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecenal
|
P F
|
|
|
|
(S)-(Z)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecenal
(S)-(E)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecenal
|
P F
|
|
|
|
S)-(Z)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecenal
(S)-(E)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecenal
|
P F
|
|
|
|
(E)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecenal
14-Methyl-8-hexadecen-1-ol
Methyl
14-methyl-8-hexadecenoate
Methyl7-hexadecenoate
5-Ethyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone
E)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecenal
Hexanoic acid
|
P F ng
|
|
|
|
(Z)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecenal
(E)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecenal
|
P F
|
|
|
|
Hexadecanoic acid
(Z)-9-Octadecenoic acid
(Z,Z)-9,12-Octadecadienoic
acid
(Z)-9-Hexadecenoic acid
Heptadecanoic acid
Octadecanoic acid
|
A
|
|
|
|
(Z)-9-Octadecenoic acid methyl
ester
Ethyl hexadecanoate
Octadecanoic acid ethyl ester
(Z)-9-Octadecenoic acid ethyl
ester
(Z,Z)-9,12-Octadecadienoic
acid ethyl
|
P M & F
Agg. Pheromone
|
|
|
Lasioderma serricorne
(Fabricius)
|
S)-4-(Prop-1-en-2-yl)-cyclohex-1-enecarbaldehyde
(S)-1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)-cyclohexene
(E)-7,11-Dimethyl-3-methylene-1,6,10-dodecatriene
1R-(1R*,4E,9S*)-4,11,11-Trimethyl-8-methylenebicyclo[7.2.0]undec-4-ene
|
Al Repellant
|
|
|
|
2-Hydroxy-4-isopropyl-2,4,6-cycloheptatrien-1-one
|
Al Repellant
|
|
|
|
(2S,3R,1'S)-2,3-Dihydro-3,5-dimethyl-2-ethyl-6(1-methyl-2-oxobutyl)-4H-pyran-4-one beta-serricorone:
(2S,3R,1'R)-2,3-Dihydro-3,5-dimethyl-2-ethyl-6(1-methyl-2-oxobutyl)-4H-pyran-4-one
|
P F
Marking pheromone
|
|
|
|
(4S,6S,7S)-7-Hydroxy-4,6-dimethylnonan-3-one
(2S,3S)-2,6-Diethyl-3,5-dimethyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran
|
P F
|
|
|
|
(4S,6S,7S)-7-Hydroxy-4,6-dimethylnonan-3-one
(2S,3S)-2,6-Diethyl-3,5-dimethyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran
4,6-Dimethylnonan-3,7-dione
4,6-Dimethylnonan-3,7-diol
7-Hydroxy-4,6-dimethyl-4-nonen-3-one
(2S,3R)-2,3-Dihydro-3,5-dimethyl-2-ethyl-6-(1-methyl-2-oxobutyl)-4H-pyran-4-one
(2S,3R)-2,3-Dihydro-3,5-dimethyl-2-ethyl-6-(1-methyl-2-hydroxybutyl)-4H-pyran-4-one
|
P F
|
|
|
|
(4S,6S,7S)-7-Hydroxy-4,6-dimethylnonan-3-one
|
P F
|
|
|
|
(2S,3S)-2,6-Diethyl-3,5-dimethyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran
7-Hydroxy-4,6-dimethylnonan-3-one
|
P F
|
|
|
|
7-Hydroxy-4,6-dimethylnonan-3-one
|
P F
|
|
|
Stegobium paniceum
(Linnaeus)
|
(2S,3R,1'S)-2,3-Dihydro-2,3,5-trimethyl-6-(1-methyl-2-hydroxybutyl)-4H-pyran-4-one
|
|
|
|
|
2,3-Dihydro-2,3,5-trimethyl-6-(1-methyl-2-oxobutyl)-4H-pyran-4-one
|
|
|
|
|
2,3-Dihydro-2,3,5-trimethyl-6-(1-methyl-2-oxobutyl)-4H-pyran-4-one
|
|
|
|
|
(E)-3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol
5-Hexyl-dihydrofuran-2(3H)-one
5-Heptyl-dihydrofuran-2(3H)-one
|
P M
|
|
|
|
(Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadienyl
acetate
(Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadien-1-ol
|
P F ng
|
|
|
|
(Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadienyl
acetate
|
Al
|
|
|
|
(Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadienyl
acetate
(Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadien-1-ol
|
P F ng
|
|
|
|
(Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadienyl
acetate
|
P F
|
|
|
Ephestia kuehniella
(=Anagasta kuehniella)
(Zeller).
|
Phenylmethanol
Nonanal
2-Phenylacetaldehyde
|
A
|
|
|
|
3-Methylbutan-1-ol
Acetic acid
|
Al
|
|
|
|
(Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadienyl
acetate
(Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadien-1-ol
|
P F ng
|
|
|
|
(Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadienyl
acetate
|
P F
|
|
|
Plodia interpunctella
(Hübner)
|
(Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadien-1-ol:
acetate:
|
F P
|
Sower et al., 1974
|
Phthorimaea operculella
(Zeller) (= Gnorimoschema operculella (Zeller))
|
(E,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl
acetate
(E,Z,Z)-4,7,10-Tridecatrienyl
acetate
|
P L
|
|
|
|
(E,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl
acetate
(E,Z,Z)-4,7,10-Tridecatrienyl
acetate
|
P F ng
|
|
|
|
(E,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl
acetate
(E,Z,Z)-4,7,10-Tridecatrienyl
acetate
|
P F ng
|
|
|
|
(E,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl
acetate
(E,Z,Z)-4,7,10-Tridecatrienyl
acetate
|
P F ng
|
|
|
|
(E,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl
acetate
|
P F
|
|
|
|
(E,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl
acetate
(E,Z,Z)-4,7,10-Tridecatrienyl
acetate
|
P L
|
|
|
|
(E,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl
acetate
|
P L
|
|
|
|
(E,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl
acetate
(E,Z,Z)-4,7,10-Tridecatrienyl
acetate
|
P F
|
|
|
|
(E,Z)-4,7-Tridecadienyl
acetate
|
P
|
|
|
|
|
P F
|
|
|
|
(E,Z,Z)-4,7,10-Tridecatrienyl
acetate
|
P F
|
|
|
|
(Z,Z)-7,11-Tridecadienyl
acetate
|
P
|
|
|
|
(Z)-5-Dodecenyl acetate
|
A L
|
|
|
Flour
mite: Acarus siro L.
|
guanine
(2-amino-6-hydroxypurine):
|
Assembly pheromone
|
Levinson et
al,.1991
|
|
|
Ammonia:
|
Kairomone
For both sex
|
Levinson et al,.1991
|
|
|
Tridecane
(Z)-3,7-Dimethyl-2,6-octadienal
(E)-3,7-Dimethyl-2,6-octadienal
|
P
|
Tuma et al., 1990
|
|
|
(Z)-3-Methyl-2-heptenoic acid
|
P F
|
|
|
|
2,6-Dimethyl-1,8-octanedioic
acid
(E)-3,7-Dimethyl-2-octene-1,8-dioic
acid
|
P
|
Shimomura et al., 2010
|
|
|
(Z,E)-7-Ethyl-3,11-dimethyl-2,6,10-dodecatrienal
(E,E)-7-Ethyl-3,11-dimethyl-2,6,10-dodecatrienal
|
P F
|
2008
|
|
|
Hexane
Propan-2-one
Ethanol
Methanol
|
A
|
|
|
|
3-Methylpentacosane
11-Methylheptacosane
3-Methylheptacosane
11-Methylnonacosane
13-Methylnonacosane
11,15-Dimethylnonacosane
13-Methylhentriacontane
9,13-Dimethylhentriacontane
11,15-Dimethyltritriacontane
|
P F
|
|
|
Fabricius
|
Nonanedioic acid
2,6-Dimethyl-1,8-octanedioic acid
|
P F ng
Contact pheromone
|
|
|
|
3-Methyleneheptanoic acid
(Z)-3-Methyl-3-heptenoic acid
(E)-3-Methyl-3-heptenoic acid
(Z)-3-Methyl-2-heptenoic acid
(E)-3-Methyl-2-heptenoic acid
|
P F
|
|
|
|
(Z,E)-7,11-Hexadecadienyl acetate
(Z,E)-7,11-Hexadecadienal
|
P L
|
Ando et al.,
1985
|
|
|
Hexadecadienyl acetate
|
P F
|
Vick et al.,
1974
|
|
|
|
P L
|
Keys et al.,
1968
|
A-Atractant,
Al-Allomone, K-Kairomone, P-Pheromone, L-Larvae, F-Female,
H- Host, M-Male, M&F-male and Female,
ng-nanogram
List of various types of traps
practiced in trapping the storage insects
|
Name
of insect
|
Type of trap
|
Result
|
Reference
|
|
Tobacco
beetle, Lasioderma serricorne F.
|
Traps
|
The
pheromone capsule dispenser captured the most adults and Serrico lure
captured the least
|
Trematerra
et al.,1978
|
|
Rhyzopertha dominica
|
Window trap
|
The window trap proved the most effective for monitoring this pest
in wheat grains
|
Singh and
Sinha,1998
|
|
Sweet
potato weevil,
Cylas formicarius (Fabricius)
|
Root traps
|
No
weevils were found upon re-examination of root traps and dissection of wild
host plants carried out in September, 1996
|
Setokuchi,
2001
|
|
|
Pheromone
traps
|
The sticky
trap was superior to the Zoecon trap but tended to collect dust on the sticky
surface.
|
Lal,
1990
|
|
|
Pheromone
traps
|
It
was concluded that SPW had been completely eradicated from Muroto City
|
Komi, 2000
|
|
Sweet
potato weevil,
Cylas formicarius elegantulus
|
Plastic
funnel traps
|
Plastic funnel
traps caught significantly more weevils (90-97% of the total catch) and were
significantly more efficient (85%
efficiency)
|
Jansson
et al., 1989
|
|
Stored
products pests
|
Ready-made
insect traps
|
In situations
where slight inaccuracy in readings can be tolerated, the efficiency of the
sensors as insect traps could be increased by loading them with the most
attractive filler, treated with an insecticide
|
Hodges,
1983
|
|
Cucujid
and tenebrionid beetles
|
Plastic
probe traps, corrugated cardboard traps and weighing boat traps
|
For
each target species, pheromone, trap type, and habitat development of optimal
monitoring programmes should be
independent
|
Javer
et al., 1990
|
|
Khapra
beetle
|
Wall-mounted
trap
|
Traps mounted
on a wall did not work unless flaps were deployed
|
Barak,1989
|
|
Storage
insect pests
|
Corrugated
paper insect trap, plastic probe trap
|
More insect pests were trapped with
corrugated paper traps than with the other devices tested in grain storage
|
Ayertey,
1989
|
|
Adult
beetles (Coleoptera)
|
Probe
trap, the Storgard WB Probe II (WB II) and Grain Guard (GG)
|
Insects in
shelled maize with WB II traps and in stored barley with GG traps catches with 84% variation
|
Subramanyam et al.,1993
|
|
Sitophilus granarius
|
Pitfall
beaker, insect probe and WBII probe traps
|
Correlation
between trap catch increase and increase in grain temperature
|
Wakefield
and Cogan,1999
|
|
Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Sitophilus granarius
and
Cryptolestes ferrugineus
|
Pitfall
and probe traps
|
The
possibility of use of nuclear magnetic resonance to detect those insects and
their immature stages hidden within grains was discussed
|
Pinniger
et al.,1986
|
|
Tribolium castaneum
|
Pitfall
and probe trap
|
The
behavioural responses of the beetles to the pheromone in still and moving air
were similar
|
Obeng-Ofori
and Coaker,1990
|
|
Flour
beetles,
Tribolium confusum
and
T. castaneum
|
Pitfall
traps
|
Pitfall traps
were efficient
|
Fisher
et al.,1993
|
|
Stored
product beetles
|
Pitfall
trap
|
Pitfall trap
was efficient
|
Obeng-Ofori,1993
|
|
Flour
moth,
Ephestia kuehniella
|
|
A strain of
the parasitoid Trichogramma evanescens and the predator Blattisocius tarsalis
have been selected for further investigation
|
Hansen
et al., 1998
|
|
Potato
tuberworm, Phthorimaea operculella
|
Dry
and a water trap
|
Pheromone
traps were efficient in trapping the insects
|
Karan–Singh
et al., 1989
|
|
Water
pan trap
|
Water pan trap
was efficient in trapping the males of the potato tuber moth
|
Tomio
and Orita, 1984
|
|
Grain
moth,
Sitotroga cerealella Olivier
|
Sticky
traps, Zoecon trap
|
All the traps
baited with synthetic pheromones caught more males than those baited with
virgin females, with the most moths (837.33/trap) being caught with a 1:1
ratio of the components
|
|
|
|
Tray
trap
|
increase the number of males trapped to an
increase of 101%.
|
Nandagopal
et
a l.,2010
|
|
Cylas formicarius,
Ips typographus,
Tomicus piniperda,
Pityogenes chalcographus, Scolytus
triarmatus
|
Pheromone
traps
|
The sticky
trap was superior to the Zoecon trap but tended to collect dust on the sticky
surface.
|
Lal,
190
|
|
|
|
|
|
References
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Chambers, J., Van Wyk, C.B.,
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Chuman, T., Kohno, M., Kato, K., and
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